Research Design Final
SSCI E-100A
The Self Esteem of Instagram Users
Michelle Saiyed
January 21, 2022
Introduction
There has been substantive work on the psychological effects of social media. The work indicates a positive correlation between social media activity and symptoms of anxiety or depression; as demonstrated by Barry et al. (2017) and the collection of studies reviewed in Keles et al. (2019). There is research on specific social media activities, such as selfie-taking, and the effect it has on body image (Feltman & Szymanski, 2018; Mingoia et al., 2017; Powell et al., 2018; McLean et al., 2015; Rajanala et al., 2018; Lee & Lee, 2021; Veldhuis et al., 2020, Tiggemann et al., 2020). Though there has been a call to research the psychological landscape of social media platforms (Montag et al., 2021; Javornik et al., 2022), there are not many studies on the psychological health and wellness of different types of social media users. Current research regarding different types of social media users focuses on the commercial value and marketing activities of users (Britt et al., 2020; de Veirman et al., 2020).
There are gaps in the current research in regards to 1) the well-being of different types of social media users and 2) the online environment of specific social media platforms.
Research Problem
This study aims to understand the mental well-being of different kinds of Instagram users, who will be categorized by their Instagram following and tested for measures of self-esteem and wellness. Instagram was chosen as the platform to base the study around because it 1) has a large number of monthly users (over 1 billion) (Dean, 2022), 2) focuses on appearance-based content, and 3) is already an established platform for working influencers, which allows for a variety of online experiences between different users.
Literature Review
Appearance-Based Content
Two different meta-analyses (Grabe et al., 2008; Mingoia et al., 2017) have found a significant negative correlation between participation in appearance-based media activities and body image. Specifically, the activity of taking and posting selfies is associated with higher levels of body dissatisfaction for women (McLean et al., 2015; Rajanala et al., 2018; Lee & Lee, 2021; Veldhuis et al., 2020). Specific behaviors that were monitored included selfie-taking, selfie editing, and the use of filters. These behaviors are all appearance-based and lead to the creation and sharing of appearance-based content. Two different phenomena have risen out of appearance-based content: Snapchat Dysmorphia and Muscle Dysmorphia.
Snapchat Dysmorphia is a phenomenon in which users seek plastic surgery to look more like filtered images of themselves; a trend that was identified by plastic surgeons in the 2017 Annual American Academy of Facial Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery (AAFPRS) survey (Rajanala et al., 2018). Multiple studies concluded that plastic surgeons could benefit from a better understanding of selfie photo angles, and available face-filters (Rajanala et al., 2018; Othman et al., 2020; Eggerstedt et al., 2020).
Muscle Dysmorphia is the preoccupation and worry that one’s body is “not muscular enough” despite having a normal to an extremely strong physique that mainly affects males (Olivardia et al., 2014). In research from Chatzopoulou et al. (2020), men with low body self-esteem engaged in fitness activities to receive online recognition.
These phenomena demonstrate a growing demographic of vulnerable users who are vulnerable to body image concerns and low self-esteem. There has been significant research on the effect of social media on psychological well-being, and the effect of appearance-based content on body image and self-esteem.
Body Surveillance
Body surveillance can be understood through the act of self-objectification. Fredrickson and Roberts (1997) originally defined and used objectification theory to understand body surveillance and the self-objectification of women. This proposal calls to understand objectification theory as it applies to other demographics as well.
Objectification theory suggests that the repeated “exposure to [the] sexual objectification of female bodies in mass media or social interaction can lead women to self-objectify by internalizing an observer’s perspective of the self” (Butkowski et al., 2019). This self-objectification is operated through body surveillance, which can be understood as a “preoccupation with scrutinizing one’s own appearance” (Moradi and Huang 2008; Butkowski et al., 2019). As previous literature regarding appearance-based content and Muscle Dysmorphia demonstrates, the act of body surveillance is seen in both demographics of men and women when it comes to appearance-based content (Olivardia et al., 2014; Chatzopoulou et al. 2020; McLean et al., 2015; Rajanala et al., 2018; Lee & Lee, 2021; Veldhuis et al., 2020).
Mega-influencers, Micro-influencers, and average users
In a recent study by Britt et al. (2020), beauty and fashion mega-influencers and micro-influencers were compared. Specifically, the study looked at the network and content characteristics of each influencer’s Twitter network. This study focused on the role each influencer has in their network community; concluding that micro-influencers play a more central role in their reply networks on Twitter, and are therefore able to control the flow of information more than mega-influencers, who contrastingly, do not maintain the same control over the information flow in their online network. Other findings include: micro-influencers are more damaged by affective information than mega-influencers, implying that the trust built by the long-term bond between mega-influencers and their followers protects mega-influencers from affective content at some level. This study provides a good starting place on how to view different types of social media users by providing insight into the different networks they cultivate with their followers. However, this study’s main focus was on understanding the effectiveness of influencer endorsements and does not provide information about the mental well-being of these influencers. Other studies about influencers have also focused on influencer endorsements and the commercial value of influencers (de Veirman et al., 2020, Schouten et al., 2019).
Deficiencies in Past Research
Research studies regarding the psychological health of social media users have been predominantly quantitative, as demonstrated by Keles et al. (2019) and Leszczyńska and van Dijck (2020), and focused on the effects of appearance-based content on well-being, self-esteem, and body dissatisfaction.
Though there is ample research on the relationship between social media use and psychological well-being, this research does not take into consideration the impact of the type of user on their psychological health or dive into the specific experiences of the users; leaving open the possibility that extraneous factors, not yet acknowledged by the researcher, can affect the psychological state of the users. Therefore the current research proposal aims to take into consideration the type of user, based on follower count, similar to Britt et al. (2020). Additionally, the proposed study includes both quantitative and qualitative research methods, providing users an opportunity to speak about their experiences in more detail.
The current landscape of research could benefit from a Mixed Methods study that includes both quantitative and qualitative measures. Qualitative measures that further explain the quantitative data collected could aid in a better understanding of the nuances of user experiences, the online environment of the social media platform, and the overall psychological health of users.
Audiences that will profit from the study
Current and inspiring Instagram influencers could benefit from this study, as it aims to provide insight into the psychological state of different users and the factors that affect that state.
Similarly, parents, guardians, counselors, and managers could also benefit from this study, to better understand the factors affecting different types of Instagram users.
Lastly, technology companies such as Meta and Instagram could benefit from this study, as it could shed insight into the impact of their platform on their users.
Purpose
The purpose of this study is to better understand the psychological well-being of Instagram users. This study is a part of a larger effort to further understand and map the psychological landscape of Instagram. This study will make up for deficiencies of past studies by 1) having a large sample size, and 2) including follow-up interview questions to explore the specific experiences of different types of social media users. This study will be conducted through an Explanatory Sequential Research Design from the point of view of a constructivist researcher.
Research Question and Hypotheses
RQ1: What is the relationship between follower count and the self-esteem of Instagram users?
RQ2: What is the overall psychological health of Instagram users with various follower counts?
RQ3: What is the online experience of social media users with varying degrees of self-esteem?
RQ4: What is the online experience of social media users with varying follower counts?
H1: There is a negative correlation between the number of followers and self-esteem.
H2: There is a negative correlation between overall psychological health and follower count.
H3: Instagram users with varying degrees of self-esteem have different online experiences.
H4: Instagram users with varying follower counts have different online experiences.
Methods
This proposal follows the Explanatory Sequential Research Design method. Explanatory Sequential Research Design consists of quantitative research methods followed by qualitative research methods. The following qualitative research methods are based on the data collection and analysis of the initial quantitative research. RQ1 and RQ2 pertain to the initial quantitative research methods which include two surveys, WHO-5 and The Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, that measure well-being and self-esteem, respectively; as well as questions regarding Instagram follower count, gender identity, racial identity, and age. Analysis of quantitative data will be followed by semi-structured interviews of selected participants. The following qualitative research methods aim at answering RQ3 and RQ4.
Participants
Participants will be English-speaking Instagram users located in the United States over the age of 18. The participants will be sourced from Amazon Mechanical Turk (MTurk) to complete the following online surveys. MTurk has been used to gain access to potential participants to complete online tasks and has demonstrated greater racial and socioeconomic diversity (Butkowski et al., 2019). Participants will include users of various follower counts; composed of regular social media users, micro-influencers, and mega influencers (Britt et al., 2020).
Measures
Initially, participants will be asked to complete a demographic intake and two surveys. Afterward, participants will be asked if they are willing to do a follow-up remote interview. Remote semi-structured interviews will take place after the collection and analysis of the quantitative research. The quantitative data will be analyzed using ANOVA to determine if values of psychological well-being (y) differ at varying levels of follower count(x1) and self-esteem (x2) across demographics of age, gender, and race. The following surveys have shown validity and reliability and will be used during the initial quantitative research methods.
World Health Organization Subjective Well-Being Index (WHO-5) a=0.86
This is a short self-reporting questionnaire aimed to measure current mental wellbeing. It consists of 5 statements. Participants rate each statement, in regards to the past 2 weeks, on a scale of 0-5; 0 (At no time), 1 (Some of the time), 2 (Less than half the time), 3 (More than half the time), 4 (Most of the time) to 5 (All of the time). A total raw score (ranging from 0-25) is then multiplied by 4 for a final score (ranging from 0-100).
Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (Rosenberg, 1965) a= 0.86
SES consists of 10 items, each rated on a 4-point scale ranging from 1 (“not very true to me”) to 4(“very true to me”). Scores range from 0 to 30, with higher scores indicating higher self-esteem. This measure has been used in a multitude of studies to determine the self-esteem of participants regarding social media use and appearance-based content (Chen et al., 2019; Wang et al., 2018).
Semi-Structured Interviews
The purpose of these semi-structured interviews is to identify any trends in the quantitative research and employ the qualitative measure of semi-structured interviews to understand them more in-depth. Among participants who agreed to a follow-up interview, random sampling will be used to select interviewees. Ideally, there would be at least 10 remote semi-structured interviews. Interview participants will be offered a gift card for their participation in the study. Interview questions will be written based on the findings from the initial quantitative research methods, as is standard in an Explanatory Sequential Research Design. Sample questions are provided in Appendix A. Two coders will independently code the qualitative data for thematic analysis (Kiger & Varpio, 2020; Braun & Clarke, 2006). These schemas will be compared and then combined into a set of general themes most pertinent to answering the research questions.
Potential Threats to Validity and Limitations
A potential limitation is the number of interviews conducted. Participants available for interviews will not be known until the quantitative data has been collected, and therefore it is possible that an insufficient number of interviews will be conducted, or that all identified trends are not explored further due to a lack of consenting interview participants. A potential threat to validity is incomplete surveys. To ensure validity, only fully complete surveys will be used in the quantitative data analysis.
Ethical Considerations
This study will require IRB approval. Before the start of the survey, participants will need to give informed consent. As this study involves well-being and self-esteem, a list of resources regarding mental health and wellness will be provided to every participant at the end of their survey. The same resources will also be provided again to every interview participant. To protect the participants from any consequences, all personal information will be kept anonymous. A composite narrative may be used to portray results.
Work Cited
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Butkowski, C. P., Dixon, T. L., & Weeks, K. (2019). Body Surveillance on Instagram: Examining the Role of Selfie Feedback Investment in Young Adult Women’s Body Image Concerns. Sex Roles, 81(5–6), 385–397. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-018-0993-6
Chatzopoulou, E., Filieri, R., & Dogruyol, S. A. (2020). Instagram and body image: Motivation to conform to the “Instabod” and consequences on young male wellbeing. Journal of Consumer Affairs, 54(4), 1270–1297. https://doi.org/10.1111/joca.12329
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Javornik, A., Marder, B., Barhorst, J. B., McLean, G., Rogers, Y., Marshall, P., & Warlop, L. (2022). ‘What lies behind the filter?’ Uncovering the motivations for using augmented reality (AR) face filters on social media and their effect on well-being. Computers in Human Behavior, 128, 107126. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2021.107126
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Appendix A
Sample Questions
**This is a list of sample questions provided to ease IRB concerns and provide research proposal clarity. Actual questions used in the study will be written based on the analysis of the quantitative data.
What is your relationship with Instagram?
How has Instagram impacted your understanding of yourself?
Have you noticed any relationship between your Instagram use and your mood?
What is your experience posting content online?
How do you interact with your followers? What is that experience like?